Introduction

Many stakeholders are concerned with the status of global forests and the effects of deforestation and forest degradation within them, for several reasons. Forests store the greatest amount of terrestrial carbon on Earth compared with other ecosystems,¹ and deforestation and forest degradation lead to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which exacerbate climate change. Forests also support biodiversity; provide ecosystem services, such as influencing weather, retaining soil, and improving water quality; and sustain Indigenous cultures, among other things.²

Some international policy initiatives to address global deforestation and forest degradation are broadly referred to as REDD⁺ (Reductions in Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation). REDD⁺ policies attempt to create financial value for carbon stored in forests by using market approaches to compensate landowners for not clearing or degrading their forests. The plus in REDD⁺ signifies co-benefits of reducing deforestation, such as biodiversity conservation, enhanced forest monitoring, sustainable management of forests, and conservation of existing forest carbon stocks, among others.³ REDD⁺ is prominently included and promoted in international climate change discussions and agreements, and many analysts consider it a low-cost policy mechanism to reduce carbon emissions.⁴ Currently, REDD⁺ largely addresses tropical forests in developing countries, because these countries have the most forested area, experience high rates of deforestation compared with other countries, and often rely on international financial assistance to address deforestation.

International forest conservation efforts, including REDD⁺, are of interest to Congress for several reasons. Reducing carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from deforestation and forest degradation is one of the strategies debated in Congress to mitigate the effects of anthropogenic carbon emissions.⁵ At the international scale, developing countries often seek bilateral or multilateral assistance—including from the United States—to meet forest conservation and other emissions reduction targets. Congress has authorized and appropriated funding to conserve and restore forests through international programs administered by several agencies.⁶ Further, some in Congress have supported biodiversity conservation, which can also cover forest conservation.⁷ Members and congressional staff also participate in international conferences featuring discussions on issues regarding forests, climate change, and biodiversity, including the 26^th Conference of Parties (COP26) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in November 2021 in Glasgow, United Kingdom.

To facilitate understanding of the principles underlying REDD⁺, this report begins with an overview of the forest carbon cycle and the contribution of deforestation to carbon emissions and an overview of deforestation (how it is measured, the factors that drive deforestation, and global and country-specific trends). The report then provides an overview of REDD⁺, including its history and implementation, and lists selected international and domestic initiatives that address REDD⁺. The report also discusses the potential role of REDD⁺ in discussions and negotiations in COP26.

The Forest Carbon Cycle⁸

Anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) into the atmosphere are the dominant contributor to the observed warming trend in global temperatures.⁹ Carbon emissions into the atmosphere are derived, in part, from forests undergoing anthropogenic and natural changes. Forest ecosystems uptake, store, cycle, and release carbon. The forest carbon cycle starts with the accumulation of atmospheric carbon in living plants—primarily trees—as they grow. As trees or parts of trees die, the carbon cycles into dead wood, litter, and soils. Carbon may remain in these pools for varying amounts of time—from months to millennia—before either returning directly to the atmosphere through natural processes (e.g., decomposition, combustion, respiration) or leaving the forest ecosystem through other means (e.g., timber harvests).¹⁰ Over time, forest ecosystems accumulate significant amounts of carbon and store a substantial amount of global terrestrial carbon (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Global Forest Area and Carbon Distribution (by major forest biome)

Source: Data from Table S3 in the online supporting material for Yude Pan et al., "A Large and Persistent Carbon Sink in the World's Forests," Science, vol. 333, no. 6045 (August 19, 2011), pp. 989-993, at https://science.sciencemag.org/content/333/6045/988. Notes: Figures may not add due to rounding. Forest biomes also are defined by precipitation and vegetation type. "Living" includes carbon in living biomass; "dead" includes carbon in deadwood, litter, and soil. BMT C = billion metric tons of carbon.

The amount of carbon stored in a forest relative to the amount of carbon the forest releases into the atmosphere is constantly changing with tree growth, death, and decomposition. If the total amount of carbon released into the atmosphere by a given forest over a given period is greater than the amount of carbon sequestered in that forest, the forest is a net source of carbon emissions. If the forest sequesters more carbon than it releases into the atmosphere over a given period, the forest is a net sink of carbon. These forest carbon dynamics are driven in large part by disturbances (i.e., events that cause tree mortality).¹¹ Disturbances, including timber harvesting, forest clearing, weather events (e.g., hurricanes, droughts), insect and disease infestations, and wildfires, can change forests. Definitions of some terms related to forests in the context of REDD⁺ include the following:

• A forest is land spanning more than 0.5 hectares (ha) with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10% or with trees able to reach these thresholds. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban land use.¹²
• Deforestation occurs when a disturbance causes a forest to convert to permanent or long-term nonforest cover, such as agricultural land, grassland, or development (e.g., urbanization). Deforestation occurs through deliberate human intervention (e.g., clearing forests to plant grasslands) and, in some cases, without human intervention (e.g., natural disasters, such as fires or hurricanes). The term deforestation is not typically used to refer to areas where trees have been harvested and are expected to be replanted or to regenerate naturally.¹³
• Forest degradation occurs when disturbances cause a long-term decline in forest condition—such as loss of canopy cover—without deforestation.¹⁴
• Tree cover loss refers to decreases in forest canopy cover from anthropogenic or natural causes. In contrast to deforestation, tree cover loss may or may not persist over the long term. For example, a timber harvest where trees were replanted on the same land would result in tree cover loss but not deforestation. ¹⁵

Forest Change and Deforestation

Scientists aim to quantify global forest change to inform efforts to monitor deforestation, forest degradation, and changes in carbon fluxes. Comprehensive, global data on forest change, in particular deforestation, is lacking. This is due in part to challenges related to the global scope, technological capabilities, and inconsistent definitions of relevant concepts, such as what constitutes deforestation. Further, even though satellite technology is capable of detecting many aspects of forest cover, satellites cannot differentiate between permanent and temporary tree cover loss. This must be done by on-the-ground verification.

Deforestation, in part, led to a net decline of global forest area of approximately 178 million ha from 1990 to 2020.¹⁶ This figure contains significant regional variation (e.g., gains of forest area in some regions). Forest degradation is difficult to assess and is generally not reported in global statistics.¹⁷ The rate of deforestation varies over this 30-year span and has declined in recent years. Global deforestation between 2015 and 2020 was estimated at 10 million ha per year, less than the 16 million ha per year calculated in the 1990s.¹⁸ Forests that are not cleared also face issues that affect their health. For example, scientists estimate that more than 100 million ha of forests globally are adversely affected by forest fires, pests, diseases, invasive species, drought, and weather events.¹⁹

Researchers, stakeholders, and governments measure carbon flux using varied scopes, methodologies, and definitions, leading to varying results. Some estimates of carbon flux combine forestry with other land use activities, such as agriculture, which may mask the specific contributions of the forestry sector.²⁰ Some studies might report only net fluxes and not gross fluxes, and others might only include CO₂ emissions versus all GHGs and make assumptions to differentiate anthropogenic and nonanthropogenic fluxes.²¹

According to estimates by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) from 2007 to 2016, net global anthropogenic emissions from agriculture, forestry, and land use (often referred to as AFOLU) for this period were 5.2 (+/- 2.6) gigaton (Gt) of carbon dioxide equivalent per year (CO₂e/yr) or approximately 13% of net global CO₂ emissions.²² This was driven by land cover change, including deforestation and afforestation/reforestation, wood harvesting, and other land uses (e.g., peatland burning). Net emissions noted above include estimated gross emissions of about 20 GtCO₂e/yr and gross removals of about -14 GtCO₂e/yr, largely from forest growth.²³ IPCC further noted in its report that the "largest potential for reducing AFOLU emissions are through reduced deforestation and forest degradation (0.4-5.8 GtCO2-eq/yr)."²⁴

Forest Coverage and Deforestation Trends

Forests cover approximately 31% of the global land area, with approximately half of all forests located in five countries: Brazil, Canada, China, Russian Federation, and the United States.²⁵ (See Table 1.) Scientists measure changes in forest coverage by estimating tree cover loss, which includes deforestation and other activities that might not be permanent (e.g., selective logging in plantations). There are many challenges for measuring forest change over time, and estimates of deforestation rates for certain countries may vary among reports.²⁶ This section of the report relies on data provided by the Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) for percent global forest coverage and the World Resources Institute's Global Forest Watch Program (GFWP) for changes in tree cover loss and estimated deforestation. GFWP estimated deforestation by reviewing satellite data of tree cover loss and categorizing the loss based on drivers of deforestation (e.g., clearings, conversion to agricultural fields and pasture, urban expansion, and others).²⁷ Table 1 shows these estimates including total tree cover loss, by country, between 2001 and 2020. (Note that these figures do not include tree cover gain.)

Countries with higher levels of potentially permanent forest loss (e.g., Brazil, the Democratic Republic of the Congo [DRC], and Indonesia) are experiencing commodity-driven deforestation, shifting agriculture, and urbanization, according to GFWP.²⁸ In contrast, countries with lower levels of potentially permanent forest loss (e.g., Russia, Canada, and Australia) are losing forest coverage as a result of forestry activities or wildfires—both drivers with the potential for forest regeneration.²⁹ In the United States, tree cover loss is largely due to forestry activities (e.g., plantation forestry) and wildfire—representing approximately 69% and 23% of the total nationwide tree cover loss, respectively.³⁰

Drivers of Deforestation

Efforts to reduce deforestation focus, in part, on reducing drivers of deforestation. Reducing drivers of deforestation, in turn, can increase the effectiveness and permanence of REDD⁺ activities. Scientists and policymakers have identified several drivers of deforestation that vary by region, forest type, local economies, and global trade, among other factors. The largest driver of global deforestation is agricultural expansion, which includes commercial agriculture, shifting small-scale agriculture, and ranching.³¹ Other drivers include legal and illegal logging; extractive industries (e.g., mining); wildfire; and urbanization, including the expansion of roads and infrastructure such as hydroelectric dams.³² Associating the appropriate drivers of deforestation with forested regions is a key step in implementing REDD⁺, according to scientists. Complex indirect and direct deforestation drivers affect large forested regions in the tropics, such as the Amazon Rainforest, the Congo Basin, and forests in Indonesia. These forested areas are often the focus of REDD⁺ initiatives and contain hotspots of deforestation.³³ Table 2 provides a summary of these forest characteristics and their deforestation drivers.

What Is REDD⁺?

History of REDD⁺

REDD evolved over a series of international negotiations, conferences, agreements, and treaties. The concept of REDD was introduced by the Coalition of Rainforest Nations in a submission to the 11^th Conference of the Parties (COP11) in 2005.³⁴ This initial concept document outlined an approach for the UNFCCC to support the use of international financing from industrialized countries to reduce carbon emissions from tropical deforestation.³⁵ In 2007, the Bali Decision on Deforestation acknowledged that deforestation and forest degradation contribute to GHG emissions and stated an "urgent need" to further reduce GHG emissions from deforestation.³⁶ The decision promoted various efforts, including demonstration projects, to reduce GHG emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and it encouraged financial and technical support for those efforts from the parties to the convention and others.³⁷

REDD became REDD⁺ in 2008, when the UNFCCC expanded the activities associated with REDD to include participation of Indigenous people; inclusion of co-benefits of reducing deforestation, such as biodiversity conservation; enhanced forest monitoring; and the conservation of existing forest carbon stocks.³⁸ The Cancun Agreements, adopted in 2010, further evolved REDD⁺ to broadly address drivers of deforestation; land tenure; forest governance; gender issues; and the participation of relevant stakeholders, including Indigenous peoples and local communities (these are known as the Cancun Safeguards).³⁹ The Cancun Agreements also provided a list of activities to be undertaken for REDD⁺ that included the following:

• Reducing emissions from deforestation
• Reducing emissions from forest degradation
• Conservation of forest carbon stocks
• Enhancement of forest carbon stocks
• Sustainable management of forests⁴⁰

In addition, the Cancun Agreements requested that parties develop a national strategy to implement the activities discussed above, calculate a national forest emission reference level, develop a forest monitoring system, and implement a system to address safeguards for REDD⁺.

In 2013, the Warsaw Framework for REDD⁺ was created from earlier decisions on REDD⁺ adopted by COP. The Warsaw Framework is considered the "REDD⁺ implementation guide."⁴¹ In 2015, REDD⁺ was incorporated into Article 5 of the Paris Agreement (PA);⁴² a framework for a global carbon market to financially support REDD⁺ was included under Article 6 of the PA in the same year.⁴³

Implementation of REDD⁺

REDD⁺ aims to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation by providing funding and incentives to landowners (public or private) for not deforesting their land. Over 50 countries have national REDD⁺ initiatives, mostly developing countries in or adjacent to the tropics. In addition, provincial and district governments implement REDD⁺ at the subnational level, and private landowners implement it at the local level.⁴⁴ REDD⁺ initiatives typically incentivize and compensate developing countries or subnational entities for reducing their emissions from deforestation and forest degradation through results-based payments.⁴⁵ REDD⁺ is implemented in countries in several stages, including (1) achieving REDD⁺ readiness; (2) formalizing an agreement for financing; (3) monitoring, reporting, and verifying results; and (4) receiving results-based payments.

To achieve REDD⁺ readiness, nations must be prepared to receive results-based payments for conserving forests.⁴⁶ This is accomplished by initially establishing a forest reference emission level or forest reference level that serves as a baseline for measuring and assessing the performance of REDD⁺ activities. The reference level also sets the basis for measuring the effectiveness of REDD⁺.⁴⁷ Reference levels are reported as emitted tons of CO₂e/yr from deforestation and forest degradation for a reference period.⁴⁸ REDD⁺ readiness also may involve implementing national policies, measures, and strategies, as well as conducting demonstration projects.

After achieving REDD⁺ readiness, the country, subnational entity, or locality may enter a legally binding commitment (agreement) with a funder to finance REDD⁺ activities. An agreement typically contains provisions and terms for implementing REDD⁺ activities and for providing payments upon the completion of these activities. An agreement also may contain conditions for adhering to REDD⁺ safeguards, such as taking actions that are consistent with national forest plans and international agreements, among other conditions.⁴⁹

REDD⁺ activities typically are implemented after agreements are made, although in some cases agreements may cover existing activities. (See Table 3 for examples of projects.) After implementation, results are monitored, reported, and verified (MRV) before payments are given. MRV programs can have several components. Domestic agencies may monitor deforestation, reforestation, and forest degradation with satellite imagery and analyze the results. For example, the NASA Carbon Monitoring System aims to provide MRV data to address forest changes in the United States.⁵⁰ Forest data also help scientists estimate the effects of REDD⁺ activities through indicators such as how many tons of CO₂e are reduced annually. In addition, MRV protocols can include measuring the effectiveness of REDD⁺ activities and verifying the distribution of payments and nonmonetary benefits to stakeholders.⁵¹ As of September 2020, 13 countries had reported results from national-level REDD⁺ activities, most of which aim to reduce emissions from deforestation.⁵² These country-level programs reported to the UNFCCC emissions reductions from REDD⁺ totaling 9.03 billion tons of CO₂e; approximately 90% of this amount was reported from Brazil.⁵³

Results-based payments are made to countries (or landowners depending on the scale) who have successfully implemented REDD⁺ programs. The payments aim to overcome the opportunity costs of other land uses that drive deforestation, such as ranching and crop production. Payments might come from a variety of public, private, bilateral, and multilateral sources. Funds from national-level REDD⁺ programs generally are to be reinvested for activities in line with the country's nationally determined contributions (NDCs) as established under Article 4 of the Paris Agreement, national REDD⁺ strategies, or low-carbon development activities.⁵⁴

There are a variety of financing approaches used to implement REDD⁺ activities: direct, nested, or project-based.

• Direct Approach: Financing may go directly to a jurisdiction (country or state) for implementing REDD⁺; in this case, the government would receive all of the benefits from REDD⁺ activities and distribute them to stakeholders via a benefit-sharing mechanism. As noted above, funds from national-level REDD⁺ programs generally are to be reinvested for activities in line with the country's NDCs, national REDD⁺ strategies, or low-carbon development activities.⁵⁵
• Nested Approach: Under a nested REDD⁺ approach, participation and terms (e.g., rules and parameters for projects) are set at the jurisdictional level and benefits are provided to individual projects.⁵⁶ For example, a country may establish an overarching program for REDD⁺ to provide guidelines and parameters for individual projects to be funded directly.
• Project-Based Approach: This approach involves providing benefits directly to projects that are not subject to a jurisdictional framework. Nonprofit or for-profit developers often use the project-based REDD⁺ approach and sell credits directly to buyers.⁵⁷ Voluntary transactions of this type stimulate investments from those in the private sector that are seeking carbon credits to offset their emissions. The voluntary market for REDD⁺ has increased significantly in recent years, going from 104.3 million tons (mt) CO₂e in 2019 to 188.2 mtCO₂e in 2020 to 239.3 mtCO₂e through August 2021. By the end of 2021, the market is expected to be double the 2020 value.⁵⁸

REDD⁺ Initiatives

Reporting REDD⁺ initiatives globally is challenging, due to projects occurring at various jurisdictional levels and a lack of homogenized data. There is no comprehensive source of REDD⁺ project data at all jurisdictional and private levels. However, the International Database on REDD⁺ Projects and Programs (ID-RECCO), created in 2015, aims to capture descriptions and data on as many REDD⁺ projects and data as possible.⁵⁹ The database is considered indicative and not comprehensive since it reflects reported projects that are described in English. Other databases, such as the UNFCCC REDD⁺ Web Platform, make available information about the results of completed REDD⁺ projects at the national level, including tons of carbon dioxide equivalent associated with each project, information on entities providing funding, and associated documentation.⁶⁰ Others have compiled similar data.⁶¹

According to ID-RECCO, as of 2020, there were a total of 624 REDD⁺ projects, including 416 ongoing projects, 206 inactive projects, and 2 planned projects. Table 4 lists the 10 countries with the greatest area devoted to REDD⁺, ranked by number of hectares associated with REDD⁺ projects. Of the 416 ongoing REDD⁺ projects catalogued by the database, 108 are occurring in these countries (approximately 25%).⁶²

Multilateral REDD⁺ Initiatives

International funding to address deforestation through REDD⁺ programming comes from initiatives such as the United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (UN-REDD), the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility, and the World Bank's Forest Investment Program. International funding is also provided through bilateral foreign assistance, international environmental funds, and public-private partnerships. Table 5 discusses selected multilateral efforts. Most multilateral efforts to implement REDD⁺ focus on tropical and subtropical developing countries. Some of these efforts focus on landuse policies broadly, with an emphasis on REDD⁺; such efforts include programs that address governance, sustainability, and agriculture in conjunction with REDD⁺. Other programs focus on REDD⁺ readiness.⁶³

Bilateral Assistance

Several countries, including the United States and Norway, provide bilateral assistance to implement REDD⁺ at the national level. For example, Norway's International Climate and Forest Initiative aims to reduce the destruction of tropical forests and conserve biodiversity, while promoting sustainable development and alleviating poverty.⁶⁴ The program was initiated in 2008 and aims to provide approximately $350.0 million annually to fund REDD⁺ activities. The program entered into partnerships with Brazil and Indonesia to pay for reducing deforestation; however, both partnerships have been terminated. Norway continues to work with Colombia, Peru, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and other countries on REDD⁺.⁶⁵

Public Private Partnerships

Several public-private partnerships also address REDD⁺. For example, the Lowering Emissions by Accelerating Forest Finance (LEAF) Coalition is an initiative that combines efforts from Norway, the United Kingdom, and the United States with companies such as Amazon, Airbnb, Bayer, Nestlé, Salesforce, and Unilever, among others.⁶⁶ LEAF aims to support emissions reductions in a REDD⁺ framework in tropical and subtropical forested countries. LEAF plans to secure $1.0 billion to implement REDD⁺ at the jurisdictional and sub-jurisdictional levels. In its initial call for proposals, LEAF deemed countries as well as subnational governing entities (e.g., states) eligible for purchase agreements with participating donors.

U.S. Initiatives to Address REDD⁺

The United States addresses international aspects of REDD⁺ directly through the Natural Climate Solutions Program (NCSP), under the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), and indirectly through other federal agencies. (See Table 6.) NCSP, formerly called the Sustainable Landscapes Program, aims to help partner nations protect, manage, and restore forests and other landscapes. It focuses on assisting countries with globally important forests that are threatened and where the degradation of ecosystems impairs development and stimulates excess carbon emissions.⁶⁷ NCSP also aims to help partner countries build systems to conduct forest inventories and monitor, report, and verify carbon emissions; build programs for forest management; and improve forest livelihoods for local communities.⁶⁸

USAID's biodiversity activities also address forested landscapes. Biodiversity activities have two goals: (1) conserve biodiversity in target areas and (2) integrate biodiversity as a component of human development.⁶⁹ Biodiversity activities that address REDD⁺ activities include the Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) and conservation in the Amazon, among others. CARPE was established in 1995 as a long-term, multifaceted program to "promote sustainable forest management, biodiversity conservation, and climate change mitigation in the [Central Africa] region through sustainable natural resource management, and strengthened conservation policy development and implementation." The Amazon program is intended to help Brazil manage protected areas, encourage the private sector to improve sustainable livelihoods for Amazonian communities, and provide science and technology to improve conservation practices, among other activities.⁷⁰

The United States bilaterally addresses deforestation and forest-related issues through free trade agreements and other bilateral agreements with certain countries. For example, the U.S.-Peru Trade Promotion Agreement contains provisions to enhance forest management in Peru and reduce illegal logging.⁷¹

REDD⁺ and COP26

COP26 likely will include discussions of REDD⁺, forest conservation, carbon sequestration potential, and other land use activities. The discussion of REDD⁺ at COP26 may focus on (1) the use of REDD⁺ activities to meet targets included in the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) for certain countries, (2) funding commitments to support REDD⁺ activities, and (3) the role of commodity-specific deforestation policies to support REDD⁺, among other topics.⁷²

Nationally Determined Contributions and Forests

Parties at COP26 may discuss the role of REDD⁺ in meeting targets stated in their own and other countries' NDCs. NDCs are countries' pledged contributions of lower GHG emissions to meet the goals of the PA. Article 5 of the PA acknowledged the role of REDD⁺ in mitigation strategies, which led to the inclusion of REDD⁺ activities in NDCs. NDCs are countries' pledged contributions of lower GHG emissions to meet the goals of the PA.⁷³ Article 5 of the PA acknowledged the role of REDD⁺ in mitigation strategies, which led to the inclusion of REDD⁺ activities in NDCs. Most Parties to the PA (79%), in their NDCs, include mitigation measures to address carbon emissions in the landuse sector.⁷⁴ A majority of NDCs reviewed refer to aspects of REDD⁺, including afforestation, reforestation, and revegetation; sustainable forest management; land restoration; and forest conservation. Specifically, 29% of the NDCs refer to reduced deforestation and forest degradation. The NDC Synthesis Report also notes that, "many developing country Parties referred to reducing deforestation as a priority with high mitigation potential, including through efforts to implement REDD⁺ activities."⁷⁵

Some policymakers note that countries are interested in increasing their forest-related commitments in updated NDCs submitted prior to COP26.⁷⁶ Many NDCs that reference or recognize forestry's role in lowering carbon emissions do not include specific targets for reducing deforestation. For example, a 2020 survey found that of the 130 initial NDCs that mentioned forestry, 50 contained quantitative forest landscape restoration targets for GHG mitigation or climate adaptation.⁷⁷ Some policymakers anticipate that updated NDCs for COP26 may include specific goals and conditions for implementing REDD⁺ activities. For example, Indonesia stated in its updated NDC that it aims to restore 2 million ha of peatlands and 12 million ha of degraded land by 2030.⁷⁸

Funding to Implement REDD⁺

Developing countries may seek financial commitments at COP26 to implement REDD⁺ to meet their NDC targets and support carbon markets. Several countries, including Cameroon, the Central African Republic, the Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Indonesia, have submitted NDCs with REDD⁺ targets that are conditional upon the receipt of foreign aid.⁷⁹ Donor countries, however, may question the success of REDD⁺ to date and may consider introducing reforms for REDD⁺ implementation at COP26. Some analysts suggest there is a need to conduct an independent cost-benefit analysis of the effectiveness of REDD⁺ funds,⁸⁰ whereas others contend REDD⁺ initiatives should improve accessibility of finances to a range of stakeholders and increase the role of civil society in implementation.⁸¹

Deforestation and Commodities

Several policymakers have suggested commodity-specific deforestation policies to support REDD⁺.⁸² This concept could emerge in discussions at COP26. For example, reports suggest the United Kingdom might propose an initiative at COP26 to address deforestation by asking producers of commodities such as soybeans, cocoa, coffee, and palm oil to commit to reduce or stop clearing forested land for commodity production. The proposed initiative also may ask for new funding commitments from parties to lower deforestation and forest degradation.⁸³

The initiative that the United Kingdom may propose at COP26 would be an extension of the Forest, Agriculture, Commodity, and Trade (FACT) Dialogue. FACT, with the support of 25 countries,⁸⁴ aims to lower deforestation by implementing the sustainable trade of commodities; increase the involvement of smallholders, local communities, and Indigenous peoples in agricultural commodity supply chains; increase transparency and traceability of commodities to inform policy; and increase research and development in the trade of commodities to improve ecosystems' sustainability.⁸⁵

Some in Congress support tying the trade in commodities to illegal deforestation through pending bills in the 117^th Congress. For example, H.R. 5508 and S. 2950 would prohibit the import into the United States of commodities derived from illegally deforested land and would require foreign countries without adequate means to address deforestation to develop and implement an action plan to address illegal deforestation before commodities could be exported to the United States.

Addressing drivers of deforestation and forest degradation are broader than REDD⁺ activities and may include a suite of approaches applied at different jurisdictional levels. At the national level, countries may increase the area of protected lands that contain forests; improve enforcement of laws aimed at reducing or preventing deforestation; and reduce incentives for activities that promote drivers of deforestation, such as agricultural expansion. At the private level, corporations may commit to practices that lower deforestation and remove goods derived from recently deforested lands from commodity supply chains. At all levels, forest conservation may be tied to the ecosystem services that forests provide; forest restoration may be stimulated by a need to improve water quality in a watershed, to buffer the impacts of storm surges during hurricanes, and to support snowpack in areas with seasonal drought. Parties at COP26 might take a broader look at forests in their role as nature-based infrastructure to justify policies to conserve forests for reasons beyond their role in the carbon cycle.