Overview

The United Nations (UN) system is a collection of interconnected entities, which includes the United Nations itself, UN specialized agencies, UN peacekeeping operations, UN funds and programs, and other related bodies.¹ Congress has demonstrated an ongoing interest in the effectiveness of the UN system and its role in U.S. foreign policy and national security. The United States is the largest financial contributor to the United Nations; Congress authorizes and appropriates funding to UN entities and often directs U.S. participation in UN mechanisms to further U.S. foreign policy and national security objectives. Some Members maintain that the mandates or actions of certain UN bodies in some circumstances do not align with U.S. priorities, and that parts of the UN system are not operating as efficiently or effectively as possible. Congress has at times withheld funding from UN activities that it does not approve of, and some Members have supported U.S. withdrawal from certain UN entities.

Members of the 118^th Congress may continue to debate the effectiveness of the UN system in addressing global issues and furthering U.S. foreign policy. This report answers frequently asked questions about the UN system, including its structure and funding, the evolution of U.S. policy toward the United Nations, UN reform efforts, and possible tools and options for Congress.

How Is the UN System Structured?

UN system entities have different objectives, budgets, leadership, and funding mechanisms. Many governments, including the United States, have long recognized that the UN system provides members with unique benefits, including its convening power, perceived neutrality, and universal membership. The United Nations provides mechanisms for governments to share the significant financial and operational burden of responding to global issues of concern, including peace and security, development, human rights, and humanitarian response efforts. The UN General Assembly (the Assembly) is the organization's plenary body. It provides a multilateral platform where each country possesses one vote, regardless of geographic size, population, or global influence.

UN organizations are composed of or funded by governments, making them inherently political bodies that often reflect the competing foreign policy and domestic priorities of their various members. As such, the overall effectiveness of some UN entities may be stymied by long-standing disagreements among member states, organizational and structural challenges, and funding and resource shortages. During the past decade, conflict, natural disasters, and global humanitarian and health crises—including the COVID-19 pandemic and Russia's war on Ukraine—have renewed concerns about the role and effectiveness of some UN bodies in addressing current and future global challenges.²

The following sections describe key parts of the UN system. An organizational map of the UN system is included in Figure A-1 of the Appendix.

What Is the United Nations and the Role of the UN Charter?

Created in the aftermath of World War II, the United Nations today comprises 193 member states. The founding document of the United Nations is the UN Charter (the Charter), an international treaty ratified by the United States in 1945. Article 1 of the Charter states that the purposes of the organization are to (1) maintain international peace and security; (2) develop friendly relations among nations; (3) solve economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian problems; and (4) promote human rights. The Charter establishes six UN "principal organs" (or parts): the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice (the Court), and the Trusteeship Council.

What Is the UN General Assembly?

The 193-member UN General Assembly is the organization's primary deliberative body.⁶ The Assembly may discuss or make recommendations on any questions or issues within the scope of the UN Charter, including the powers and functions of any UN organs. Each UN member, including the United States, has one vote in the Assembly, with a two-thirds majority vote required for decisions related to important issues, admission of new members, and approval of the UN regular budget and UN peacekeeping operations budget.⁷ The Assembly may adopt recommendations concerning the maintenance of international peace and security, as well as political, economic, social, and human rights issues, but these are recommendatory in nature and nonbinding. Assembly resolutions nevertheless can hold political weight and may demonstrate the collective will of UN member states.⁸ The Assembly's annual regular session opens in September and runs for one year, with its meeting of heads of state and government held at the beginning of the session. (The President of the United States generally speaks before the Assembly, and Members of Congress may attend as U.S. representatives.⁹)

What Is the UN Security Council?

The mandate of the 15-member UN Security Council is to maintain international peace and security.¹⁰ Under Article 25 of the Charter, UN members agree to accept and carry out the Security Council's decisions.¹¹ Membership includes five permanent members ("P-5"): the United States, China, France, Russia, and the United Kingdom, and 10 nonpermanent members elected by the General Assembly for staggered two-year terms on the basis of equitable geographic distribution. Security Council decisions on substantive matters are made by an affirmative vote of nine members, including the concurring votes of the P-5. A negative vote from any P-5 member is said to "veto" the resolution or decision, preventing its adoption.¹² Security Council resolutions and decisions may address a range of peace and security issues, including authorizing peacekeeping operations; imposing sanctions on governments, groups, or individuals; and establishing fact-finding missions and investigations. The Security Council may also authorize the use of military force to restore international peace and security under Chapter VII of the UN Security Council, although such instances are rare.¹³ The Security Council presidency rotates each month, alphabetically by member. Its provisional "program of work" (or agenda) is approved by members on a monthly basis and provides a framework for its activities. Although the Security Council has acted to avert conflict or maintain peace in certain situations, it has come under increased scrutiny during the past decade for taking limited or no action to address global crises such as the Syria conflict, COVID-19, and the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.¹⁴

What Is the UN Secretariat?

The UN Secretariat conducts the substantive and administrative work of the organization at the request of the General Assembly, the Security Council, and other UN entities.¹⁸ It is based at UN Headquarters in New York City, with additional offices in Vienna, Austria; Nairobi, Kenya; and Geneva, Switzerland. It includes over 35,000 staff members worldwide, hired both internationally and locally.¹⁹ The Secretariat is led by the UN Secretary-General (UNSG), the organization's "chief administrative officer," who is appointed by the Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for up to two five-year terms. The UNSG's administrative responsibilities include recruiting and hiring staff, coordinating with UN entities, preparing the regular budget, and reporting to the General Assembly. At times, the UNSG may use his or her "good offices"—drawing on the perceived independence, moral authority, and impartiality of the position—to bring private or public attention to situations that threaten peace and security. The current UNSG is António Guterres of Portugal; his second term expires in December 2026.²⁰

What Is the UN Economic and Social Council?

The UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) was established under the UN Charter to promote economic and social development and human rights.²¹ It comprises 54 member governments selected by the General Assembly for staggered three-year terms on the basis of equitable geographic distribution, with no term limits. (The United States is generally elected as a member.) ECOSOC broadly serves as a UN forum for discussing, studying, and making recommendations on international economic, social, cultural, educational, health, and related matters, as well as promoting respect for human rights.²² It coordinates the work of UN entities, including the specialized agencies, functional commissions, and regional commissions. It also assists in preparing and organizing major international agreements and conferences in the economic and social fields, including implementation of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), a group of 15 goals and targets that broadly guide UN development efforts.²³ ECOSOC is a venue for drafting treaties for General Assembly consideration, and it consults with more than 5,000 registered nongovernmental organizations (NGOs).

What Is the International Court of Justice?

The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal UN judicial body.²⁴ The Court's role is to settle legal disputes submitted to it by states and to provide advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by authorized UN organs and specialized agencies. Under the UN Charter, all UN members, including the United States, are parties to the Statute of the ICJ, which is an annex to and "integral part" of the Charter.²⁵ Based in The Hague, Netherlands, the Court comprises 15 independent judges, who are elected by both the General Assembly and the Security Council for nine-year terms. A U.S. citizen, Sarah H. Cleveland, currently serves on the court.²⁶

What Is the Trusteeship Council?

The now-defunct Trusteeship Council was created under Chapter XII of the UN Charter to supervise the administration of 11 trust territories, from colonies to sovereign nations. Examples of trust territories included Western Samoa (now Samoa), Tanganyika (now part of Tanzania), and Rwanda-Urundi (now Rwanda and Burundi). The Trusteeship Council completed its mandate in 1994 when Palau, the last of the trust territories, gained its independence. Although its work is complete, the Trusteeship Council remains a principal organ of the United Nations; eliminating it would likely require amending the UN Charter.²⁷

What Are UN Specialized Agencies?

The UN system has 15 specialized agencies, each of which is a legally independent intergovernmental organization with its own constitution, rules, membership, organs, and assessed budget (see Figure 1). Several specialized agencies, including the International Labor Organization (ILO), the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), and the Universal Postal Union (UPU), existed prior to the establishment of the United Nations. The United States is a member of all specialized agencies except for the UN Industrial Development Organization and the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). The United States withdrew from UNESCO in 2018 but rejoined the organization in 2023.²⁸

Figure 1. UN Entities, by Type

Source: United Nations, adapted by CRS. Reporting information drawn from, "The United Nations System," at https://www.un.org/en/pdfs/un_system_chart.pdf. Notes: "Reports to…" indicates the main UN organ(s) to which each entity reports.

What Are UN Funds and Programs?

UN funds and programs are entities generally established by the General Assembly that have a specific mandate. The Secretary-General appoints the head of each entity, while the governing boards (composed of UN member states) review policies and activities. Examples include the World Food Program (WFP), the UN Development Program (UNDP), and the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) (see Figure 1 above). The United States serves on the executive boards of several UN funds and programs, including UNDP, UNICEF, the UN Population Fund (UNFPA), and WFP.

What Other Types of Organizations Are in the UN System?

Several other UN bodies, referred to by the UN system as "U.N. entities," do not fall under the categories described above. These entities include the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), UN Women, and the UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA). Depending on the organization, their heads are generally appointed by the UNSG or elected by the General Assembly.

Other organizations, often referred to as "related organizations," are part of the UN system but are not considered UN bodies; they may have special agreements with or report to principal organs like the General Assembly or the Security Council. Examples include the International Criminal Court (ICC), the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), and the International Organization for Migration (IOM) (see Figure 1 above).

What Are Key UN System Activities and Coordinating Mechanisms?

The mandates and activities of the aforementioned UN bodies are diverse and global in scope. Guided by the UN Charter, these organizations separately and collectively aim to address a range of cross-cutting and often overlapping global issues, including but not limited to the following:

• Peace and security. UN system efforts to address peace and security include peacekeeping operations, which work to transition countries from conflict to peace;²⁹ UN special political missions (country-specific and regional field operations focusing on addressing complex political situations); and peacebuilding activities (longer-term efforts to create conditions for sustainable peace). Some UN entities also work to promote disarmament and rule of law, among other related issues. Many of these activities are coordinated or implemented by the UN Secretariat's Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs and Department of Peace Operations.
• Development. More than 30 UN entities, referred to as the "U.N. Development System," provide economic and social development assistance in 162 countries and territories. They work as part of UN "Country Teams" (UNCTs) that coordinate development and other UN activities with host governments and local communities.³⁰ UN bodies also collectively work to implement the aforementioned UN Sustainable Development Goals.³¹ The UN Development Program (UNDP) is the lead UN entity mandated with addressing global development issues.
• Human rights. UN members and entities aim to address and monitor human rights situations through several mechanisms, including the 47-member intergovernmental UN Human Rights Council, which adopts resolutions and appoints independent experts to address certain human rights situations, and the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), the council's administrative body, which includes 19 regional and standalone offices worldwide. Several global human rights treaties and agreements also operate under the umbrella of the UN system.³²
• Humanitarian assistance. A range of UN entities respond to global humanitarian needs driven by conflict and natural disasters. UN entities support displaced populations with emergency food, water, shelter, health services, and protection. Key humanitarian entities include UNHCR, WFP, and IOM. The Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) coordinates the UN response, which often includes implementing partners such as nongovernmental organizations. For 2024, the UN system aims to provide humanitarian assistance to 180.5 million people across 72 countries.³³

Recognizing the broad and sometimes overlapping scope of UN mandates, UN members and leadership have sought to coordinate UN system activities and sectors through mandatory reporting to select UN bodies; the creation of inter- and intra-agency working groups, commissions, and other bodies; and the establishment of management and organizational reforms.³⁴ The primary coordination body across the UN system is the Chief Executives Board for Coordination (CEB), which comprises the heads of over 30 UN system entities. Chaired by the UNSG, the CEB meets twice a year to provide high-level and system-wide guidance.³⁵

How Is the UN System Funded?

Article 17 of the UN Charter requires each UN member to contribute to the expenses of the organization. Most UN entities are funded largely by contributions from governments.³⁶ Depending on their structure, UN bodies are funded through assessed or voluntary contributions from UN members (or a combination of both).

What Are Assessed Contributions and How Are they Determined?

Assessed contributions are required dues, the payment of which is a legal obligation accepted by a country when it becomes a member of a UN entity. Assessed contributions often fund the core budget of the organizations (e.g., personnel, operations, key programs). Members of UN entities are assessed a percentage of the organization's total budget. These assessments, which are determined by the members of each organization, provide organizations with a regular source of income to staff and implement authorized programs. The UN regular budget, UN peacekeeping operations, and UN specialized agencies are funded mainly by assessed contributions, although some of these entities also receive voluntary funding. Specifically,

• The UN regular budget totaled $3.59 billion in 2024.³⁷ The United States' assessed contribution is 22% of the regular budget, the largest of any UN member state (about $707.0 million in U.S. FY2024). Other top contributors include China (15.25%) and Japan (8.03%) (Figure 2). The General Assembly approves assessment levels every three years based on a formula taking into account gross national income and other economic data (see text box).
• As noted above, UN peacekeeping operations are funded through annual assessments based on a modification of the regular budget scale, with the P-5 assessed at a higher level than for the regular budget. Countries with the highest assessments include the United States (26.94%), China (18.68%), Japan (8.03%), and Germany (6.11%) (see Figure 2). (Since the mid-1990s, Congress has capped the U.S. peacekeeping contribution at 25%, often below the assessed rate.³⁸)
• Each UN specialized agency agrees to its own financial structure and budget, including scale of assessments. When determining assessment levels, some agencies follow the assessments for the regular budget, while others use formulas based on their own criteria. For example, the U.S. assessment for WHO, which has a funding structure similar to the regular budget, is 22% in 2024. In contrast, the U.S. assessment to WIPO, which is a largely self-financing entity, is 6.5%.

Member states that do not pay assessed contributions in full or on time may accumulate arrears (outstanding dues) to UN entities. Each UN body has its own payment timeline and system for defining and tracking arrears, which are generally outlined in the organization's constitution, statutes, or financial regulations. In the United Nations, under Article 19 of the UN Charter, a consequence of accumulating arrears is the loss of voting rights in the General Assembly.

Figure 2. Top UN Regular Budget and UN Peacekeeping Assessments

Source: Adapted by CRS from UN documents A/RES/76/238 and A/76/296/Rev.1/Add.1.

Some observers have expressed concern regarding the ongoing funding shortfalls for the UN regular budget and UN peacekeeping. In a March 2019 report to the General Assembly, and in subsequent annual statements, UNSG Guterres noted the "deteriorating financial health" of the United Nations. He stated that these challenges were not only the product of UN member state "payment patterns and arrears," but also "structural weaknesses" in UN budget methodology.³⁹ At times, these funding shortfalls have affected UN operations.⁴⁰

What Are Voluntary Contributions?

Governments provide voluntary contributions to UN entities at their discretion. Such contributions may fund the core budgets of some UN organizations, as well as special UN funds, programs, and offices. Voluntary funding finances special funds, programs, offices, and other entities of the UN system. No member is required to provide such funding, and governments may decide what, if any, contributions will be made during each budget cycle. Many UN entities, such as WFP, UNDP, and UNICEF, depend on voluntary funding; consequently, their budgets may fluctuate from year to year. Depending on donor preferences, contributions might be used to fund the core budgets of these bodies or may be earmarked for specific programs or activities. UN entities that received the most voluntary contributions in 2022 (latest available data) were WFP ($14.3 billion), UNICEF ($10.0 billion), UNHCR ($5.9 billion), and UNDP ($4.9 billion).⁴¹

What Is UN Peacekeeping?

In keeping with its purpose to maintain international peace and security, a significant component of the United Nations is peacekeeping operations.⁴² The United Nations currently operates 12 UN peacekeeping missions worldwide, with more than 80,000 personnel from over 100 countries (see Figure 3). The Security Council is responsible for establishing, renewing or terminating each operation, as well as determining the mission's mandate and budget. The concept of peacekeeping has evolved since the first mission was established in 1948. "Traditional" peacekeeping involves implementing cease-fire or peace agreements; however, in recent years, the Security Council has increasingly authorized "multidimensional" operations in complex and insecure environments where there is little peace to keep and no clear outcome. Peacekeepers may be required to protect civilians, disarm violent groups, monitor human rights violations, or assist in delivering humanitarian assistance.

How Is UN Peacekeeping Funded?

UN members fund UN peacekeeping through assessments based on a modification of the UN regular budget scale, with the P-5 countries assessed at a higher level than for the regular budget due to their role in authorizing and renewing peacekeeping missions. Historically, the Security Council has authorized the UN General Assembly to create a separate assessed account for each operation to be supported by member states' contributions. Since 2019, due to concerns about budget shortfalls, the General Assembly has pooled peacekeeping funding to allow for increased financial flexibility. The approved budget for the 2023-2024 peacekeeping fiscal year is $6.33 billion.⁴³ Costs vary among the 11 operations, with three of the missions in Africa constituting over 50% of the budget (UNMISS in South Sudan, MINUSCA in the Central African Republic, and MONUSCO in the Democratic Republic of Congo).⁴⁴

Figure 3. UN Peacekeeping Operations, 2024

Source: Adapted by CRS based on UN document, A/C.5/78/30 and UN database on peacekeeping troop and police contributors, at https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/troop-and-police-contributors. Notes: "Troops" refers to peacekeeping troops, as well as experts on mission, formed police units, individual police, and staff officers. List of acronyms: (1) MINURSO=UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara; (2) MINUSCA=UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic; (3) MONUSCO=UN Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo; (4) UNMISS=UN Mission in the Republic of South Sudan; (5) UNISFA=UN Interim Security Force for Abyei; (6) UNMIK=UN Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo; (7) UNFICYP=UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus; (8) UNIFIL=UN Interim Force in Lebanon; (9) UNDOF=UN Disengagement Observer Force; (10); UNTSO=UN Truce Supervision Organization; (11) UNMOGIP=UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan.

Who Are UN Peacekeepers?

Some UN members, often referred to as "troop contributing countries" (TCCs), voluntarily provide military and police personnel for each mission. Peacekeepers are paid by their own governments, which are reimbursed by the United Nations at a standard rate determined by the General Assembly (about $1,428 per soldier per month). As of June 30, 2024 (latest available), the top TCCs included Nepal (6,093), India (6,040), Rwanda (5,918), and Bangladesh (5,614). The United States contributes 27 peacekeeping troops. Among other P-5 members, China contributes the most troops (1,844), followed by France (727), the United Kingdom (270), and Russia (83).⁴⁵

A key challenge facing UN peacekeepers, and UN peacekeeping more broadly, is continued allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA) by some UN peacekeepers. For nearly three decades, UN member states and UN secretaries-general have adopted reforms aiming to respond to the issue, including implementing a zero-tolerance policy; public reporting of SEA rates by mission; creating new UN positions to address SEA; establishing a UN trust fund to help victims; and repatriating full contingents when there is "credible evidence of widespread or systemic" abuse committed by that unit.⁴⁶ Despite these and other efforts, incidents continue to be reported.⁴⁷ The United States has generally supported UN efforts to combat SEA, with Congress linking U.S. funding to progress addressing the issue.⁴⁸

What Is UN Reform?

The United Nations has been in an ongoing state of development and change as international stakeholders seek ways to improve the efficiency of the organization and its overall effectiveness in addressing global challenges. Many member states have sought to institute management reforms, generally focused on four areas of concern: (1) perceived inefficiencies and lack of accountability in the UN Secretariat; (2) duplication and redundancy of UN mandates, missions, and programs; (3) perceived ineffectiveness of UN bodies; and (4) evidence of fraud, waste, abuse, or mismanagement of UN resources. These efforts tend to be cyclical, with members considering waves of new reform proposals every 5 to 10 years. The reform attempts are often initiated by a member state, groups of member states, or the UNSG.

What Are Obstacles to UN Reform?

A significant challenge facing UN reform advocates is finding common ground among UN members. Each member state has its own political agenda and foreign policy goals, and may also have its own priorities for UN reform. Consequently, member states often hold different views on how best to implement reform and how to evaluate the success or failure of a given reform activity.⁴⁹ Other related and often overlapping challenges include the following:

• Competing priorities. Some observers maintain that UN members and/or the Secretary-General should more effectively prioritize reform efforts. Instead of considering a large series of reform proposals that are often watered down to appease all UN members, some observers contend that member states should select a smaller number of reform priorities and work toward their effective adoption and implementation.
• Organizational structure. The UN system is a highly complex and decentralized organization, and therefore may be slow to consider or implement potential reforms. Some experts assert that some UN managers and staff are resistant to the implementation of new programs or changes to existing programs. Many observers contend that some reforms lack clear plans for implementation, including deadlines and cost estimates. They stress that this overall lack of planning may affect the progress and ultimate success of reforms already implemented.
• Resources. A significant challenge for UN reform efforts may be the effective implementation of wide-scale management and other reforms within existing UN budgets (also referred to as "cost neutral" reforms). However, some experts maintain that money saved from other reforms (such as reviewing and/or closing existing UN mandates or consolidating business operations) could create a funding source for further reforms or UN activities.⁵⁰

More broadly, the complex relationships that exist among member states outside of the UN system may be another obstacle to achieving reform. Such relationships exist independent of the United Nations but can affect how countries work together within UN fora to achieve reform objectives. Conflict, religious and ethnic differences, trade and economic issues, and geography can all potentially impact reform cooperation among UN members.

What Is the Reform Implementation Process?

The process of changing UN policies, processes or structures varies depending on the type of reform proposed. Certain reforms might be achieved by amending the UN Charter or through various non-charter actions. Charter amendment is a rarely used practice and has occurred on three occasions.⁵¹ The amendment process is provided for under Article 108, which states that a proposed amendment must be approved by two-thirds of the General Assembly and be ratified "according to the constitutional processes" of two-thirds of UN member states, including all permanent members of the Security Council.⁵² Article 109 allows for a convening of a General Conference of UN members with the purpose of "reviewing the present Charter." The date and place of the conference are to be determined by a two-thirds vote in the Assembly and an affirmative vote from any nine Security Council members. Potential Charter revisions are to be adopted by a two-thirds vote (with each country having one vote) and to take effect when ratified by the governments of two-thirds of UN member states. A Charter review conference has never been held.

Non-charter reforms are more common and comparatively easier to achieve. Since 1945, the General Assembly has authorized reforms of its own processes and procedures—as well as those of the Secretariat—without Charter amendment. The Assembly has established various fora for discussing reform issues, including a Committee on the Charter of the United Nations and an Open-Ended Working Group on the Security Council (see text box below). The General Assembly has also implemented reforms on its own by adopting proposals introduced by member states or the UNSG. The UNSG may institute reform in his or her capacity as chief administrative officer, including changing the organization of some UN departments.

How Does the United States Participate in the UN System?

The United States played a lead role in establishing the United Nations. It is a member of the General Assembly and a permanent member of the Security Council. It is also a member of 13 of the 15 UN specialized agencies, and U.S. representatives/nationals are often elected to positions on UN boards, councils, and other bodies. U.S. participation in and funding of the United Nations is authorized through the United Nations Participation Act of 1945, as amended (UNPA; P.L. 79-264; 22 U.S.C. §§287-287e-4). Authorization for U.S. participation in other UN bodies is included in Section 301 the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (P.L. 87-195, as amended). (FAA; P.L. 87-195; 22 U.S.C. §2221.)

What Are the Congressional and Executive Branch Roles?

Both Congress and the executive branch have key roles in furthering U.S. policy regarding the UN system. Congress authorizes and appropriates U.S. funding, while the executive branch represents and shapes U.S. policy in UN fora through the U.S. Mission to the United Nations (USUN) in New York City and the Department of State's Bureau of International Organization Affairs in Washington, DC.⁵⁴ The President nominates ambassadors for UN posts, and the Senate provides advice and consent for nominees, including the U.S. Permanent Representative to the United Nations. The current Permanent Representative is Linda Thomas-Greenfield, who leads USUN and represents the United States on the Security Council and other UN bodies.⁵⁵ Depending on the Administration, the Permanent Representative may serve as a member of the President's Cabinet. Of the 31 individuals who have served since 1946, about two-thirds have been accorded Cabinet rank by Presidents, including Ambassador Thomas-Greenfield.⁵⁶

How Has U.S. Policy Toward the United Nations Evolved?

U.S. priorities regarding the UN system have shifted over time, often reflecting world events, domestic political conditions, and the preferences of individual policymakers. A number of recurring (and interconnected) U.S. priorities and issues have emerged over the past several decades, including

• the overall effectiveness of UN entities in both achieving their mandates and in advancing U.S. policy priorities;
• appropriate levels of U.S. funding to the United Nations, including identifying areas where the United States can leverage funding to increase efficiency and accountability or achieve the largest return on its investment;
• implementing UN reforms, particularly to improve UN transparency, accountability, and oversight; and
• countering the influence or role of certain countries and groups in UN fora (see the text box below for selected examples).

During the past two decades, congressional and executive branch policies toward the United Nations have varied. President Obama strongly supported U.S. participation in UN bodies. President Trump consistently proposed significant decreases in UN funding and withheld contributions to some UN bodies, although Congress funded most UN entities at higher levels than President Trump requested. The Biden Administration supports U.S. engagement with UN entities. President Biden's budget requests to date have proposed fully funding assessed contributions to UN bodies and paying selected U.S. arrears. For FY2024, Congress fully funded most UN entities but, as in previous years, withheld or conditioned funding for certain activities (see below more information on U.S. funding).

How Does the United States Fund the UN System?

Most U.S. funding to the United Nations is authorized and appropriated through annual Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs (SFOPS) appropriations legislation.⁶² Selected UN-related SFOPS appropriations accounts are outlined below:

• The Contributions to International Organizations (CIO) account funds assessed contributions to the regular budget, specialized agencies, and other international organizations. For FY2024, Congress provided $1.54 billion to the CIO account.
• The Contributions for International Peacekeeping Activities (CIPA) account funds U.S. assessments to most UN peacekeeping operations. For FY2024, Congress provided $1.37 billion to the CIPA account (up to the 25% enacted peacekeeping cap; see below).
• The International Organizations & Programs (IO&P) account funds mostly core voluntary contributions to UN funds and programs and other international organizations, such as the UN Children's Fund and the UN Development Program. For FY2024, Congress provided $436.92 million to the IO&P account.

The United States also provides voluntary contributions to UN entities through other SFOPS and non-SFOPS accounts. For example, according to the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), the United States contributed more than $10.4 billion to UN entities through U.S. global humanitarian accounts in FY2022 (latest available), including Migration and Refugee Assistance, International Disaster Assistance, and Food for Peace, Title II Grants (P.L. 480). Funding supported entities such as UNHCR and WFP. U.S. funding is also provided through accounts supporting global health, security, and development objectives, including the Economic Support Fund and Global Health Programs accounts.

Congress does not specifically appropriate funding to certain UN bodies. Instead, it often appropriates lump-sum amounts to the above-mentioned UN-related SFOPS accounts. As a result, the executive branch has leeway to determine how funds are allocated, often with little or no congressional consultation. Some observers express concern that Administrations may not fund some UN entities as Congress intended, and suggest that Congress could legislate funding levels for specific UN entities. Some contend this approach would deviate from long-standing bipartisan practices intended to provide the executive branch with flexibility to respond to unpredictable circumstances, such as the outbreak of armed conflict or humanitarian crises.⁶³

An ongoing challenge facing U.S. policymakers is tracking and determining the full scope of U.S. funding to the UN system across all U.S. government agencies. There is no "one number" that represents total U.S. funding to the UN system at any given point in time. This uncertainty is due to the complicated nature of U.S. and UN budget processes, the decentralized structure of the United Nations, and the range of U.S. government agencies, departments, and offices that, either directly or indirectly, fund various UN entities and activities. Over the years, Congress has enacted a range of reporting requirements on U.S. funding to the United Nations (see below).

How Can Congress Shape U.S. Policy in the UN System?

Congress can use a range of tools and mechanisms to influence U.S. policy at the United Nations. Foremost among these is withholding or conditioning funding to UN bodies. Such withholdings generally fall into three categories:

• Caps on payment of U.S. assessments. In the past, Congress has limited U.S. payments to assessed budgets, citing concerns that U.S. assessments were too high. For example, in the 1990s, it capped the U.S. contribution to the UN regular budget at 22% and the UN peacekeeping assessment at 25%.⁶⁴
• Full or partial withholdings from specific UN entities or activities. Over the years, and for a range of reasons, Congress has withheld or placed conditions on funding to selected UN entities or activities, some of which have required executive branch waivers or certifications to release funds. Examples include withholding funding for UN activities related to the Palestinians, conditioning funding to UN entities based on management reforms, and restricting Human Rights Council funding.⁶⁵
• Congressional holds. Members of Congress have sometimes placed holds on the disbursement of appropriated UN funding for policy reasons. Holds are generally requested by Members of appropriations and foreign affairs authorizing committees, and in most cases, little information is publicly available on their details.⁶⁶

The overall impact of U.S. withholdings depends on the origin of the program's funding. If an activity is funded through the UN regular budget and the United States withholds a proportionate share of its contributions, the cost of the program will most likely be covered by surplus regular budget funds. In such cases, a U.S. withholding would have little or no immediate impact on the program's operation or funding levels and would be largely symbolic. But if the United States withholds funds from a program funded primarily by member state contributions, the impact of the United States withholding contributions could be greater and potentially impact operations and programs. The United States could also accumulate arrears and lose its vote in certain UN bodies if it withholds certain assessed contributions.

In addition to withholding or conditioning funding, Congress may oversee and influence U.S. policy at the United Nations through a range of mechanisms, including the following:

• Executive branch reporting requirements. Congress has enacted legislation requiring the executive branch to report to Congress on various UN issues, including U.S. Participation in the United Nations, U.S. Funding to International Organizations, and Voting Practices in the United Nations, among others.⁶⁷
• Hearings and investigations. Congress may hold hearings to consider UN issues; past hearings have focused on Administration priorities, budget issues, and the status of UN programs. It can also conduct UN-related investigations on issues of concern.
• Resolutions. Members of Congress may propose and enact simple or concurrent resolutions expressing an opinion, fact, or principle in one or both chambers of Congress. Some Members have used such resolutions to voice an opinion about U.S. policy in the United Nations or the UN system itself.
• Consultations with UN officials and other governments. More broadly, some Members of Congress meet or correspond with UN secretaries-general (or other UN representatives) to communicate U.S. priorities and perspectives. Members may also raise UN-related issues bilaterally with other government officials.

Looking ahead, Congress might monitor Administration policies and actions related to the planned 2024 UN "Summit of the Future" (the Summit), which is scheduled for September 22-23 at UN Headquarters in New York City. At the Summit, participants plan to adopt a "Pact for the Future" (the Pact), which member states have continued to negotiate. The Pact is expected to reaffirm the UN Charter, reinvigorate multilateralism, boost implementation of existing commitments, and provide "solutions to challenges and restore trust among Member States."⁶⁸ The Biden Administration has expressed overall support for the Summit, stating that its priorities should include preventing conflict, ensuring "a just global digital transformation," strengthening the integrity of public information, and improving the "ability of the multilateral system to respond to complex crises."⁶⁹

Appendix. UN Organizational Chart

Figure A-1. UN Organizational Chart

Source: United Nations, at https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/un_system_chart_11x8.5_print_e.pdf.