Introduction

The majority leader in the contemporary House is second-in-command behind the Speaker of the House.¹ Typically, the majority leader functions as the Speaker's chief lieutenant or "field commander" for day-to-day management of the floor. "I'm the Speaker's agent," stated one majority leader.² Another majority leader said: "I see it that [the Speaker] is the chairman of the board and I am the chief executive officer."³ Or as one Speaker put it, the majority leader's "job is to run the floor and keep monitoring committees and legislation."⁴

Elected every two years by secret ballot of the party caucus or conference, the majority leader is usually an experienced legislator. For example, Representative Richard Armey of Texas became the GOP's first majority leader in 40 years when Republicans won control of the 104^th House in the November 1994 elections. Armey began his House service in 1985, became GOP Conference chair during the 103^rd Congress (1993-1994), and was one of the principal authors of the "Contract with America" the Republican Party and its congressional candidates presented to voters ahead of the 1994 elections. When Richard Gephardt, Democrat of Missouri, became majority leader in June 1989, he had been in the House for more than a decade, had served four years as chair of the Democratic Caucus, and was a contender for the 1988 Democratic presidential nomination. Prior to his selection, John Boehner, Republican of Ohio, chaired the Education and the Workforce Committee (now Education and Labor) and piloted major education legislation ("No Child Left Behind") through the House. Representatives Eric Cantor, Republican of Virginia, and Kevin McCarthy, Republican of California, were elected majority leader during their sixth and fourth terms in office, respectively, and McCarthy previously had served as Republican leader in the California state assembly. Majority Leader Steny Hoyer, Democrat of Maryland, entered the House in 1981 and served six years as Democratic Caucus chair and then four years as Democratic whip before becoming majority leader.

Two fundamental and often interlocking responsibilities orient the work of the majority leader: to the institution of the House, and to the majority party caucus or conference. From an institutional perspective, the majority leader is principally responsible for exercising overall supervision of the order of business on the floor, especially as it affects the party's program. As former House parliamentarian Lewis Deschler (1928-1974) wrote:

A party's floor leader, in conjunction with other party leaders, plays an influential role in the formulation of party policy and programs. He is instrumental in guiding legislation favored by his party through the House, or in resisting those programs of the other party that are considered undesirable by his own party. He is instrumental in devising and implementing his party's strategy on the floor with respect to promoting or opposing legislation. He is kept constantly informed as to the status of legislative business and as to the sentiment of his party respecting particular legislation under consideration. Such information is derived in part from the floor leader's contacts with his party's members serving on House committees, and with the members of the party's whip organization.⁵

From a party perspective, the majority leader's paramount assignment is to employ his or her talents, energy, and knowledge of procedural rules and political circumstances to ensure that the party maintains majority control of the House. Each of these major responsibilities gives rise to a wide range of leadership activities. Before discussing the primary duties of the majority leader, it is worth highlighting the historical origins of the majority leader position.

Origin of the Majority Leader Position

Congressional scholars assert that in 1899 Speaker David Henderson, Republican of Iowa, appointed Sereno E. Payne, Republican of New York, as the first officially designated majority leader.⁶ Prior to this date, there is neither an accurate nor complete compilation of House majority leaders. Two factors seem to account for the absence of a compilation. First, it took many decades before anything like our modern party structure emerged in the House. As a result, not until nearly the end of the 19^th century did the position of "majority leader" become a recognized party office. Second, neither official congressional sources nor party records of this early period identify a lawmaker as the majority floor leader.

Several historians of the House suggest that from the chamber's early beginnings various lawmakers informally assumed the role of "floor leader." Usually, but not always, these informal party leaders were the chairs of either the Committee on Ways and Means (established in 1795) or the Committee on Appropriations (following its creation in 1865). Speakers often appointed either their allies or their principal rivals for the speakership to head these panels. As political scientist and Senate parliamentarian (1951-1975) Floyd M. Riddick explained:

In the House, the early titular floor leaders were at the same time the chairmen of the Ways and Means Committee. Before the division of the work of that committee, the duties of its chairmen were so numerous that they automatically became the actual leaders, since as chairmen of that committee they had to direct the consideration of most of the legislation presented to the House. From 1865 until 1896 the burden of handling most of the legislation was shifted to the chairman of the Appropriations Committee, who then was designated most frequently as the leader. From 1896 until 1910 once again the chairmen of the Ways and Means Committee were usually sought as the floor leaders. During all of these years before the "Cannon revolution" of 1910, the Speaker, who appointed all members to committees, saw to it that his party opponent for Speakership, some Representative with a large following, or one of his faithful lieutenants was made the floor leader.⁷

Thus, these early titular floor leaders were appointed by the Speaker rather than chosen separately, as occurs today, by vote of the majority party caucus or conference.⁸ A list of House majority leaders who have served since 1899 is appended in Table 1.

When the House "revolted" in 1910 against the leadership of Speaker Joseph Cannon, Republican of Illinois, the power to designate the floor leader was taken away from the Speaker. In 1911, with Democrats in charge of the House, Oscar Underwood of Alabama became the first majority leader elected by the party caucus. (Subsequently, all Democratic floor leaders have been selected in this manner.) Underwood also chaired the Ways and Means Committee, which functioned as the party's committee assignment panel during this period. The political reality was that Majority Leader Underwood's influence in the House exceeded that of the Speaker, Champ Clark of Missouri. As one scholar wrote, "For the first time the leader of the House was not at the rostrum, but was on the floor."⁹ Probably no majority leader has ever matched Underwood's party power and institutional influence. (Underwood was elected to the Senate in 1915 and served as majority leader of that chamber as well.)

When Republicans reclaimed majority control of the House in 1919, Franklin Mondell of Wyoming, a high-ranking member of the Appropriations Committee, became majority leader upon nomination by the GOP committee assignment panel. (Four years later the GOP Conference began the practice of electing its majority leader.)¹⁰ Mondell set the contemporary practice of majority leaders usually relinquishing their committee positions, and always any committee chairmanships, upon assuming this important and busy post. To be sure, there have been exceptions to the practice of majority leaders not serving on standing committees.¹¹

The start of the 71^st Congress, April 15, 1929, witnessed a first-ever event that remains the practice to this day: the official announcement in the House of the selection of the majority leader. Representative Willis Hawley of Oregon, the chair of the majority Republican caucus, addressed the presiding officer: "Mr. Speaker, the Republican caucus of the House has reelected Hon. John Q. Tilson, of Connecticut, majority leader for the Seventy-first Congress." As House precedents state, "this was the first occasion of the official announcement of the selection of party leaders in the House."¹²

Separate election of the majority leader by the party caucus elevated the status and influence of the position and its occupants. The majority leader soon became the "heir apparent" to the speakership. In the modern House, no Democrat has been elected Speaker without having previously served as the party's majority or minority leader. The leadership succession ladder for Republicans is not as well-defined, but no Republican has become Speaker without previous experience in positions of party or committee leadership.¹³

Unfortunately, there is scant scholarly commentary about the duties and functions that devolved upon the informal floor leaders of the pre-20^th century period. Nor are the duties and functions of today's majority leaders spelled out in any detail in the House rulebook or in party rules, although those sources make brief reference to the position. As a recent majority leader stated, "[E]ach leadership position is defined by the person who holds it. It's not defined by a job description."¹⁴ In short, factors such as tradition, custom, context, and personality have largely defined the fundamental institutional and party responsibilities of the majority leader. Several of the most important of these two overlapping categories merit mention. However, it bears repeating that the scope of the majority leader's role in carrying out these assignments is shaped significantly by the Speaker and the sentiments of the majority party conference.

Institutional

The style and role of any majority leader is influenced by numerous elements, including personality and contextual factors, such as the relationship the majority leader has with the Speaker, the size and cohesion of the majority party, whether or not the party controls the White House, the general political environment in the House, and the degree of conflict over the party's policy priorities. Despite the variability of these factors, Members of both parties expect the majority leader to fulfill a number of institutional roles and responsibilities. To manage this workload, the majority leader is provided extra staff resources beyond those accorded to other House Members.¹⁵

Scheduling Floor Business

Although scheduling is a collective activity of the majority party, the majority leader has a large say in shaping the chamber's overall agenda and in determining whether, when, how, and in what order legislation is taken up. Everything from setting policy priorities; to consulting with Members, committee chairs, and the minority party on timing and other matters; to arranging the schedule; and announcing the schedule on the floor are within the purview of the majority leader. Scheduling is a complex process and the majority leader must juggle a wide range of considerations and pressures. Five concerns illustrate the scheduling role of the majority leader.

First, the majority leader commonly lays out the daily, weekly, monthly, and annual agenda of the House. For example, when the majority leader released the planned schedule for the 2022 legislative session, it indicated: "The House will convene for its Second Session on January 10. It will meet for 112 days, including Committee Work Days.... The 2022 schedule seeks to ensure that Members can get their legislative work done in Washington and maximize their time home in their districts interacting directly with constituents."¹⁶ Typically, on a Thursday afternoon when the House's business for the day and week is winding down, the majority leader will announce the projected agenda for each day of the next business week, identify when votes are expected to occur, and respond to inquiries from Members about the House's program of activities.¹⁷ To be sure, scheduling and agenda-setting are responsibilities done in close consultation with the Speaker, majority whip, and others.

Second, a host of strategic considerations influence scheduling. For instance, with a view toward upcoming congressional campaigns and elections, the majority leader may schedule legislation that helps to more clearly convey the party's messages and goals to voters. Some bills may not receive floor time unless there is reasonable certainty that the Senate will also act, while the timing of others might be coordinated by the majority leader based on input from party counterparts in the Senate. The majority leader may schedule floor action at specific times—a constitutional amendment to ban flag desecration just before July 4, for example, or a tax reform bill ahead of the April 15 filing deadline—to maximize public attention on the issue. The majority leader may use "deadline lawmaking," indicating to Members that floor action on certain legislation must occur before the House will adjourn for a district work period. Some weeks might be planned around particular messages or themes the majority party wants to convey—for instance, to "rebuild the nation's infrastructure," "put families first," or "make work pay"—with votes scheduled on bills that address that goal.

Third, majority leaders try to balance the House's workload requirements with Members' family or personal obligations. "Family friendly" scheduling aims to achieve better balance in the public and private lives of lawmakers. "As we welcome a large class of new members, many with young families, next year's [2019] schedule is focused on balancing time in Washington with time for Members to conduct work in their districts and spend time with their families," stated Majority Leader Hoyer.¹⁸

Fourth, majority leaders advance or delay action on measures for a variety of reasons, including whether they have the votes to achieve their objectives, or to maintain an element of surprise. Questioned by a colleague on the floor about when a particular bill might be scheduled, Majority Leader Jim Wright, Democrat of Texas, replied:

In scheduling the program for the Congress one must be constantly aware of the importance of maintaining a little suspense. I learned this from Agatha Christie. Always hold something back and keep people guessing a little bit. And that is what we are doing with this bill, quite frankly. We are maintaining a little suspense in the schedule.¹⁹

Fifth, majority leaders recognize that timing considerations suffuse the lawmaking process. Majority Leader Hoyer put it this way:

We have the regular legislation that needs to be passed. We need to pass appropriation bills to fund the government. We need to pass a national defense authorization act to ensure the security of our nation. We want to deal with a comprehensive immigration program. Obviously, our immigration system is not working. Everyone agrees on that.²⁰

In every congressional session there are funding bills to enact, timetables to meet, pressures associated with the end-of-session rush to adjourn, the electoral needs of individual Members, and a multitude of other considerations that the majority leader must address to accommodate the rank-and-file, committee chairs, the minority party, the President, and colleagues in the extended party leadership. As one majority leader explained: "You have to find that elusive grail of harmony among this most heterogeneous mix of opinionated individualists."²¹

Manage Floor Decisionmaking

Majority leaders are active in constructing winning coalitions for their legislative priorities. To this end, a majority leader will consult with the chair of the Rules Committee to discuss procedures for considering legislation on the floor. For example, an open, structured, or closed amendment process might be options for discussion. Or, the majority leader might decide to call up a bill under suspension of the rules procedure, which limits debate and bars any floor amendments. To limit policy riders on appropriations bills, the majority leader might invoke House Rule XXI, clause 2(d). This rule grants preference to the majority leader to end consideration of an appropriations bill in the Committee of the Whole by offering a successful "motion to rise."²²

Majority leaders engage in many other activities to promote policy success on the floor. They may, for instance, meet weekly or biweekly (more frequently, if needed) with committee chairs, ad hoc groups, or individual lawmakers to persuade them to support priority measures; woo lawmakers through the provision of various legislative services or rewards; coordinate vote counts with the party whip organization; propose changes in bills to attract support from wavering Members; reach out to lawmakers on the other side of the aisle to draft compromise legislation; craft "leadership amendments" designed to attract majority support; synchronize strategic activities with majority floor managers; and rally outside support for the party's legislative priorities.

Majority leaders can assume other duties relevant to floor action. To forge winning coalitions, for instance, they engage in deal-making, appeal to Members' party loyalty, enlist allies to overcome resistance to policy objectives, devote considerable time and energy in promoting consensus among colleagues, and work behind-the-scenes to get things done. Majority leaders might also encourage party colleagues to deliver one-minute, morning hour, or special order speeches that spotlight the party's program and defend it against criticism from the other party.

Act as Public Spokesperson

There are two interconnected dimensions associated with the majority leader's role as public spokesperson: external and internal. Externally, majority leaders are national newsmakers, especially in today's "24/7" news cycle and social media environment. When he became majority leader in 1973, Thomas P. "Tip" O'Neill Jr., Democrat of Massachusetts, remarked that "the media couldn't stay away ... I was interviewed constantly."²³ Majority leaders are expected to explain and defend the actions and decisions of the House and their party to the general public. "The role of the majority leader puts you in a spokesman role," noted one majority leader.²⁴ Accordingly, these leaders appear on the major network and cable television programs, the Sunday morning news shows, talk radio, and in various online venues. Periodically, they deliver major addresses and write articles or "op-ed" pieces on the major issues before the House. They meet with journalists and newspaper editors. Regularly, they give news briefings (so-called pen and pad sessions) to reporters on the schedule and agenda of the House, the priorities of the majority party, legislative-executive relations, and sundry other topics.

Some majority leaders have developed applications for smartphones and tablets in an effort to connect with voters. For instance, when he was majority leader, Eric Cantor released an application called "Citizen Cosponsor" that allowed individuals to indicate their support for legislation by providing an electronic "cosponsorship" through the app.²⁵ Majority Leader Steny Hoyer provides a link on his website to the "Dome Watch" application, which was "designed to help House staff, the press, and the public better follow the latest developments from the House Floor."²⁶ As a communications aide to the majority leader explained, "New technologies make it possible to keep the public informed of what we're doing and receive instant feedback."²⁷

Internally, majority leaders are ready on the floor to defend their party, program, or President from criticism by the opposition. They participate in legislative debate and may make the closing argument on a bill. Majority leaders rise to defend the prerogatives of individual Members; offer critiques and rebuttals to minority party initiatives; work with committee chairs and others to coordinate and integrate the party's communication strategy; and employ floor speeches "to set the tone on a newsworthy issue or provide the proscribed leadership perspective before a major vote."²⁸ In brief, the majority leader generally functions as the party's chief spokesperson on the floor and in other forums as well.

Sometimes the internal and external roles coincide when majority leaders introduce legislation, monitor executive branch actions, or champion proposals nationally. For example, Majority Leader Armey and another GOP colleague traveled the country in a "Scrap the Code Tour," a "national campaign to take the tax reform debate directly to the American people."²⁹ To highlight his party's legislative efforts at job creation, Majority Leader Cantor introduced the "Jumpstart Our Business Startups" Act in 2012, which consisted of "a series of measures to boost capital formation for small businesses."³⁰

Confer with the White House

Majority leaders regularly attend meetings at the White House—especially when the President is of the same party—to discuss issues before Congress, the President's agenda, and political events generally. For example, the joint bipartisan congressional leadership, including the House majority leader, may meet at the White House to discuss agenda priorities for the year. There are occasions, too, when the President will journey to Capitol Hill to meet with the top leaders of Congress. There are instances as well where majority leaders can be sharp critics of the President.

Majority leaders may also be active on international issues: brokering foreign policy compromises with the White House, championing the interests of certain nations, or criticizing some foreign governments. In general, anyone who occupies the House's number two leadership post has strengthened leverage with the White House and greater public prominence on international issues. "People are now listening to what I've been saying because I'm majority leader," declared a former holder of the post.³¹

Strategically, the role of the majority leader will depend on whether the President is of the same party. In general, majority leaders will strive to advance in Congress the goals and aspirations of a same-party President. If the President is of the opposite party, then the procedural and political situation is more complicated. When should the majority leader cooperate with the President? When should the Administration's policies be opposed? Should alternatives to the President's priorities be offered, and if so, when? In short, the majority leader, the Speaker, and their other party colleagues need to determine when to function as the "governing" party in the House and when to act as the "loyal opposition."

Facilitate the Conduct of Business

The majority leader is responsible (as are other top party leaders) for ensuring the orderly conduct of House business. To expedite the work of the House, a wide range of responsibilities are typically performed by the majority leader. For example, the majority leader may act as Speaker pro tempore and preside over the floor; offer resolutions affecting the operations of the House, such as establishing the hour of daily meeting of the House; perform various ceremonial duties; and support initiatives to revamp or reform the internal procedures and structures of the House. The majority leader also has statutory authority to serve on or appoint individuals to certain boards or commissions established by Congress.³²

Party

The majority leader, former Speaker "Tip" O'Neill once said, "helps set policy and carries out the duties assigned to him by the Speaker."³³ Perhaps the most important duty of the majority leader is to maintain party control of the House. After all, legislative organization is party organization. The majority party sets the agenda of the House and controls all committee and subcommittee chairmanships. Thus, along with other party leaders, the majority leader works to help elect and reelect the party's rank-and-file Members, forge unity on priority legislation, and promote a favorable public image of the House majority. These three activities illustrate the majority leader's core party responsibilities.

Assist Colleagues' Reelection Campaigns

Majority leaders are typically energetic campaigners on behalf of their party colleagues. They assist incumbents and challengers in raising campaign funds, and they travel to scores of House districts to campaign with party candidates. According to his aides, in the months leading up to the 2018 congressional elections which returned Democrats to the majority, Representative Hoyer:

[V]isited 94 districts in 22 states this cycle, campaigning for at least 112 Democrats—37 incumbents and 75 candidates, including everyone on the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee's "Red-to-Blue list"—and raising or contributing nearly $9 million for the effort to retake the House.³⁴

Majority leaders often establish their own "leadership PACs" to raise and donate money to candidates of their party. They maintain lists of campaign donors who can be called upon to support the party in the most competitive elections; assist with advertising campaigns on television and online in the months ahead of an election; encourage outside groups and allies to raise money for the party; and coordinate their campaign activities with congressional, state, and national campaign organizations. Majority leaders assist in recruiting qualified challengers to take on incumbents. They also promote get-out-the-vote drives and devise strategies to energize their party's grassroots supporters. In short, majority leaders are heavily engaged in the electoral campaigns of many party candidates. Their ultimate goal: to retain their majority status and, if possible, to increase the number in their ranks.

Promote the Party's Agenda

Majority leaders undertake a variety of actions to advance the party's agenda. They develop legislative agendas and themes (e.g., an "innovation agenda") that address issues important to the country and to core supporters and swing voters in the electorate, and they communicate the party message across print and digital media, on the House floor, and in numerous other venues. A key aim of this form of "message sending" is to animate and activate their electoral base to turn out on election day. Another objective is to develop electorally attractive ideas and proposals that may enable their party to retain the House (and, if possible, gain seats in the Senate or even the presidency).

To this end the majority leader may help organize "town hall meetings" in Members' districts to publicize and promote the party's agenda or a specific priority, such as health care or tax cuts. He or she may sponsor party "retreats" to discuss issues and evaluate the party's public image. The majority leader may also distribute reports, memorandums, briefing books, and online materials that highlight partisan campaign issues; conduct surveys of party colleagues to discern their priorities; organize "issue teams" or "task forces" to formulate specific party programs; and form "message groups" or "theme teams" to map media strategies to foster favorable press coverage of party initiatives and negative views of the opposition party.

Sometimes the majority leader will attend Senate party luncheons (usually held on Tuesdays when the Senate is in session) or other gatherings on the other side of the Capitol to better coordinate interchamber action on the party's legislative and message agenda. "We're having more bicameral meetings," remarked a majority leader, "so that ... we understand what each other is doing ... and what can and can't be done."³⁵ Majority leaders are also named as conferees on major bills "to represent the overall interests of the [majority] leadership."³⁶ In brief, the majority leader is a key strategist in promoting the party's agenda, outlining ways to neutralize the opposition's arguments and proposals, and determining when to compromise with the other party on policy matters.

Encourage Party Cohesion

If a party is to maintain its majority, it is generally considered advantageous to minimize internal factional feuds or disagreements that may undermine its ability to govern the House. One majority leader explained this job as a "combination of evangelist, parish priest, and part-time prophet. You have to be a peacemaker in the family."³⁷ To forge party cohesion means, in part, that majority leaders will consult widely with the diverse factions within their party; they will argue the need for party loyalty on crucial procedural and substantive votes; they will try to persuade colleagues of a measure's policy and political benefits; and they will schedule breakfasts, lunches, or dinners to keep in touch with party members and to listen to their concerns. Aiding these efforts is the majority leader's membership on various party units, such as policy or steering committees.

Majority leaders may also enlist the support of outsiders, such as lobbyists, to assist in building party cohesion. They may cultivate an external network of contacts in universities, think tanks, or consulting firms to function as an informal "brain trust" in policy development and strategic analysis, suggesting how the majority party might mobilize the support required to enact their ideas into law. Majority leaders, then, work to boost their party's fortunes internally and externally by acting as a political cheerleader, negotiator, consensus-builder, and peacemaker.

Final Observations

The majority leader's duties and functions, although not well-defined and contingent on his or her relationship with the Speaker, have evolved to the point where it is possible to highlight the customary institutional and party responsibilities. As one majority leader said about his institutional duties: "The Majority Leader has prime responsibility for the day-to-day working of the House, the schedule, working with the committees to keep an eye out for what bills are coming, getting them scheduled, getting the work of the House done, making the place function correctly." On the party side, the majority leader added: "[Y]ou are also compelled to try to articulate to the outside world what [your party stands] for, what [your party is] fighting for, what [your party is] doing."³⁸